If you're afraid, don't do it; if you're doing it, don't be afraid!
- Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (May 31, 1162 - August 25, 1227, aged 65), also known as Emperor Taizu of Yuan, whose given name was Temujin, was the Khan (Emperor) who founded the Great Mongol Empire. He was also the founder and statesman and military strategist of the Great Mongol Empire and the Yuan Dynasty, and the grandfather of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty. He reigned from the spring of 1206 to August 25, 1227, for a total of 22 years.
Genghis Khan is highly renowned not only in his homeland but also worldwide. His biographies have had a greater global circulation than those of other famous individuals such as Confucius and Mencius. This is because he was the creator of a world empire, the founder of the Mongol Empire and the Yuan Dynasty, and the creator of the Mongol ethnicity. Before Genghis Khan, the Mongolian grasslands were in chaos, with new ethnic groups constantly emerging and collapsing, replaced by others in a cycle. It wasn't until Genghis Khan's emergence that the grasslands were unified, gaining stability and assimilating other ethnicities into a stable rule, providing an opportunity for the fusion of the nomadic tribes, leading to the creation of the Mongol ethnicity. He symbolizes the ethnic identity and sentiment of the Mongols, setting him apart from ordinary historical figures.
The growth history of Genghis Khan and the process of unifying the Mongol tribes are as follows:
In 1162, Genghis Khan was born into the noble family of Qiyi Borjigin in Mongolia.
His father, Yesukhei, had once been the leader of the tribe but was poisoned to death early on by the Tatar people.
His followers scattered, he was captured and paraded in public, and his wife was also plundered.
At the age of twenty, he gradually revived his family. He borrowed 30,000 troops from Wangkhan of the Kerait tribe and Jamukha of the Jarchi tribe, defeated his enemies, reclaimed his wife, and reunited his tribe.
In 1189, he was selected as the Khan of the Chiyen tribe.
In 1190, he had a falling out with Jamukha. In the Battle of the Thirteen Wings, he defeated Jamukha.
In 1201, he coordinated both internally and externally with the Jin Dynasty to attack the neighboring Tatar tribe.
In 1201, Genghis Khan defeated the coalition army gathered by Jamukha
In 1202, he annihilated the Tatar tribe (revenge for his father)
In 1203, he destroyed Wangkhan of the Kerait tribe (his adoptive father)
In 1204, he conquered the Naiman tribe led by Sunak
Afterwards, the entire Mongolia was unified
After Genghis Khan unified the Mongol tribes and established the Mongol state, he instituted the following systems:
Set up ninety-five thousand-household units
Compiled herders and civilians into a decimal-based integrated military-civilian organization
Designated pastures, ensuring that nomadic people could not leave their designated grazing areas
The heads of the thousand-household units were called Nayan, appointed by the Great Khan from those who had meritorious service or were leaders of old factions that had voluntarily submitted
Establish a ten-thousand-strong Keshig guard army
The meaning of Keshig is the imperial guard, serving as bodyguards for the Great Khan, accompanying on military expeditions, and managing palace affairs.
Some were sons of chiliarchs or centurions, with the connotation of being hostages, serving as such.
Create the Mongolian script
Before this, there was only an oral language, with records kept by finger carvings, which was relatively primitive.
To write the Mongolian oral language in Uyghur characters
Later, he taught the crown prince and various princes
Appointed the grand judge Zaruhuci
The foster brother served as the first grand judge
In charge of households and judiciary, similar to the chief executive and judicial officer, or the national chancellor
Formulate "Yassa" (meaning law)
Preliminary formulation began in 1203
In 1219, it was further compiled and written on scrolls (also related to the establishment of writing)
Enfeoffment of sons and younger generations
The enfeoffment system was one of the three major systems during the Mongol-Yuan period: the Thousand-Household System, the Keshi System, and the Enfeoffment System
According to the customs of property distribution on the Mongolian grasslands, more than thirty of the ninety-five thousand households were divided among several younger brothers and four sons.
The four younger brothers were enfeoffed in the east near the Greater Khingan Range, becoming the Eastern Way Princes of the Ulus.
The four sons were enfeoffed in the west near the Altai Mountains.
Each occupied a smaller Ulus territory and fief, where the subordinate thousand-households within the fief became personal vassals.
Among the three major systems, the enfeoffment system was particularly important, making the ruling structure of the Mongol Empire a composite system of direct administration by the Great Khan and divisional leadership by his sons and younger brothers. The single-system evolved into a dual-system. Enfeoffments on the eastern and western wings served as stepping stones and frontlines for continued external conquests. Sons and younger brothers were encouraged to expand eastward and westward, and whatever they conquered would become their own sphere of influence, greatly enhancing the enthusiasm of the offspring for territorial expansion.
Genghis Khan had more than 40 concubines, who lived in four ordu (originally meaning felt tents, later referring to palaces). Since there were only two ranks in the Mongolian harem - Empress and Consort - many women were called Empress. Among them, Genghis Khan's chief empress Borte held the highest status, and only her sons were considered legitimate heirs with the qualification to inherit the throne.
According to the genealogical table of the Yuan Dynasty's imperial family, Genghis Khan had six sons, in the order of their birth:
Jochi (legitimate son), responsible for hunting
Chagatai (legitimate son), responsible for law
Ogedei (legitimate son), responsible for military affairs and administration
Tolui (eldest legitimate son), assisted Genghis Khan in managing the central ulus of a thousand households
Uruji, left no descendants
Kuolejian, born to Huran. Although he was an illegitimate son, he was deeply favored by his father. Later, he died from an arrow wound during his campaign with Batu in Russia.
Other sons not recorded in the genealogical table of the Yuan History:
Chagu'er, born to Yisugan
Chuluun, born to a Naiman mother
Next, let's talk about his four legitimate sons:
Jochi (1181 - 1227, lived to be 46 years old)
The eldest son of Genghis Khan, his mother was Börte; among Genghis Khan's sons, he was the most skilled warrior. Born after Börte was abducted, there is a possibility that he may not have been Genghis Khan's biological son, but Genghis Khan seemed not to mind. Nevertheless, from the day of his birth, there were constant doubts about Jochi's lineage, especially by his second brother Chagatai, which often led to conflicts between them.
During the attack on Urgench, a dispute with Chagatai affected the progress of the siege, angering Genghis Khan. Later, due to his contributions in the western campaigns, Genghis Khan granted him the farthest region from the Mongolian grasslands, the Qipchaq territory (located north of the Aral Sea and Caspian Sea in today's Russia), where he became the Qipchaq Khan, responsible for guarding the western frontier of the areas conquered by the Mongol army.
In 1223, Genghis Khan summoned him for an audience. Due to illness, Chagatai was unable to make the long journey, and some people falsely accused him of not being ill and even hunting. Upon hearing this, Genghis Khan became furious, suspecting Chagatai of plotting rebellion and decided to send troops to attack him. However, before the expedition, he learned that Chagatai had passed away due to illness. Realizing his misunderstanding of Chagatai, Genghis Khan felt extremely guilty and self-reproachful, staying alone in his tent for several days without coming out and not allowing anyone to enter.
Chagatai (1183–1242, aged 59)
The second son of Genghis Khan. He had a fiery temper and did not get along with Jochi. In the fourteenth year of Genghis Khan's reign (1219), he opposed his elder brother Jochi as the successor to the throne and requested that his younger brother Ogedei be named as the heir. When Emperor Taizong Ogedei ascended the throne, because Jochi had already passed away, Chagatai became the senior among the princes. Whenever Emperor Taizong encountered important military or state affairs, he would consult with him.
His fief included the present-day Central Asian region of Transoxiana and western Xinjiang, equivalent to the territory of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, later known as the Chagatai Khanate. This khanate was also a Mongol state located within the territories of Turkic culture. Genghis Khan ordered him to manage the Yassa. He spent most of his time living in Huoyas near Almaliq.
Ogedei (November 7, 1186 – December 11, 1241, aged 55)
The third son of Genghis Khan, Ogedei Khan was personally designated by Genghis Khan as his successor and later became the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. He was the second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, reigning from September 13, 1229 to December 11, 1241, for a total of 12 years and 3 months.
In 1227, before his death, Genghis Khan once again summoned his sons to his side, urging them to obey Ogedei's leadership and to unite sincerely. Soon after, Genghis Khan passed away. According to feudal imperial systems, the throne should immediately pass to the designated heir upon the emperor's death. However, the Kurultai (a Mongolian council meaning conference, an ancient military and political parliament of the Mongols and Turkic peoples responsible for electing khans or other officials) still played a significant role. Ogedei could not ascend the throne solely based on his father's will but had to await the final decision of the Kurultai. During this period, the throne remained vacant for two years, with Tolui acting as regent.
On September 13, 1229 (the 24th day of the eighth lunar month), Ogedei was elected as the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire at the Kurultai assembly, supported by princes such as Chagatai, Tolui, and Temege Ochigin, along with various ministers. Historical records indicate that the princes and officials conferred the title "Mu Yi Jian He Han" (He Han being another translation for Great Khan) upon Ogedei.
Tolui (1191–1232, lived to be 41 years old)
was the youngest son of Yuan Taizu Genghis Khan, ranked fourth among his siblings. According to Mongolian custom, the youngest son inherits his father's estate, while the elder sons go out to make their own livelihoods. Hence, during Genghis Khan's lifetime, when he distributed fiefs among his sons, Tolui remained by his parents' side, inheriting all the ordos (palace tents), pastures, and armies in the Onon and Kerulen regions from his father. The army left behind by Genghis Khan totaled 129,000 men. Of these, 101,000 elite troops were inherited by Tolui.
After the death of Genghis Khan on August 25, 1227, Töregene Khatun acted as regent until the kurultai, or great assembly, was held two years later. In the autumn of 1229, a grand meeting of Mongol princes and important ministers was convened to elect a new Great Khan. Some people in the court adhered to the old system, advocating for the youngest son Tolui, against Genghis Khan's last wishes. The conference debated for forty days. At this time, Jochi had already died, Chagatai fully supported Ögedei, Tolui stood alone, and could only support his brother Ögedei's enthronement.
In September 1232, Tolui died on his way back to the Mongolian grasslands. The cause of Tolui's death was very complicated, and it is highly likely that he was poisoned by sorcerers sent by Ögedei. Another theory suggests that Tolui may have died from excessive drinking.
Then why could Ögedei become the Great Khan?
First, let us take a look at the traditional succession of the Mongol Khans:
The succession of the Mongol Khans did not follow the tradition of "son succeeding father" or "younger brother succeeding elder brother". Instead, a kurultai assembly had to be convened for election.
When the Mongols elect during the Khurultai conference, they consider several factors. There are three factors:
The candidate's military achievements
The testament of the previous Khan
The tradition of the youngest son guarding the hearth.
Among these three, military achievements are the most important. The Mongols have a tradition of world conquest; the more wealth one plundered and the more territory one conquered, the greater their military achievements were, and the more support they could gain. Genghis Khan himself was elected as the Great Khan based on his military achievements.
The youngest son guarding the hearth was also an inevitable consideration for the Mongols. Tolui was able to act as regent not only because he had the greatest military achievements, but also because he was the youngest son of Genghis Khan.
However, the遗嘱 of the Great Khan was also very important. The successor established by the Great Khan would generally be followed by later generations. For example, before Genghis Khan passed away, he designated Ogedei as his successor. Although Tolui had the greatest military achievements and everyone actively nominated Tolui, allowing him to act as regent for two years, in the end, Tolui still had to follow Genghis Khan's遗嘱 and together with everyone else, place Ogedei on the throne.
Then why did Genghis Khan personally designate Ogedei as his successor? There is one theory:
There was an issue with the lineage of the eldest son Jochi.
The second son Chagatai had significant conflicts with the eldest son Jochi and also had a bad temper.
The third son,窝阔台, is more tolerant and mild-tempered, and also very resourceful. Moreover, he has the support of the second son, making him an ideal candidate.
The fourth son,拖雷, was the most favored by Genghis Khan, but he is too young to command respect from others. Additionally, his three older brothers may feel不服气 (resentful), which could lead to unforeseen incidents. Therefore, 窝阔台 was chosen to manage the state, but the majority of the population, land, and military were given to 拖雷, ensuring that he became the most powerful in the Great Mongol Empire.
The four sons of Genghis Khan eventually formed the four major family lineages of the broader Golden Family of Mongolia, each establishing one of the four great khanates. The relationships are as follows:
术赤 lineage: formed the Kipchak Khanate;
察合台 lineage: formed the Chagatai Khanate;
Ögedei Khan's lineage: formed the Ögedeid Khanate;
Tolui's lineage: formed the Yuan Dynasty and the Ilkhanate;
As for the succession relationship of the Great Khans of the Mongol Empire established by Genghis Khan:
Ögedei Khan's lineage:
The second Great Khan, Ögedei
The third Great Khan, Kuyuk
Tolui's lineage:
The fourth Great Khan, Mongke - starting from Mongke, the inheritance of the Mongol Empire's Khanship passed into the hands of Tolui's lineage.
The fifth Great Khan, Kublai - starting from Kublai, the Yuan Dynasty was established. The various khanates gradually paid nominal allegiance to the Yuan emperor as the Great Khan, making them equivalent to collateral branches of the Yuan imperial family. However, they were actually developing independently.
Although the issue of succession after Genghis Khan's death was temporarily resolved, the concerns he had anticipated eventually came to pass. The four major lineages that developed from his four sons experienced continuous divisions, alliances, and conflicts, leading to internal strife and power struggles among them.