Definition:
Managing the populace on a household basis is referred to as "compiled households" (bianhu).
Abolishing the local leaders such as nobles, elders, and clan heads from the past feudal system, making all people subjects of the ruler, which is called "equal commoners" (qimin).
Development process:
The transition from the "feudal society" of the Western Zhou to the "compiled households and equal commoners society" of the Western Han took five hundred and fifty years:
The system of registered households originated from the power struggle among feudal lords during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Its fundamental driving force came from the intensification of competition between states, with the aim of enriching the country and strengthening its military forces. The establishment of a household registration system was mainly for the effective control of human resources; all men, women, elderly, and children had to be registered in the records, which was completely different from the "clan leader management system" of the Western Zhou city-states, where land and people (family retainers, citizens, and rural residents) were all considered as properties of the clan. The "registered commoner" system restructured and reshuffled them from the rigid class system.
In the tenth year of King Xian of Qin's reign, he implemented the measure of "registering households in groups of five," organizing five households into one group. During busy farming seasons, they would help each other, and during idle times, they would undergo military training. If someone broke the law, the system of collective responsibility would be enforced. King Xian also carried out other reforms within the state of Qin, including abolishing human sacrifices, relocating the capital, expanding commercial activities, and promoting the county administrative system. He also launched several campaigns to reclaim lost territories west of the Yellow River. The reforms during King Xian's reign were quite effective, laying the foundation for the Shang Yang Reforms during the reign of Duke Xiao of Qin.
Duke Xiao of Qin appointed Shang Yang to carry out reforms aimed at strengthening the state. Among these reforms was the reform of the household registration system, consolidating small villages into counties to strengthen administrative institutions for better management. Moreover, the military organization of ten households and the system of mutual responsibility were later integrated into ancient neighborhood administrative organizations, effectively preventing population flight and ensuring stable tax revenue. It can be seen that after the emergence of "registered commoners," universal conscription became possible. Military systems infiltrated civilian social organizations, such as the system of mutual responsibility and civilian ranks. Shang Yang's reform introduced the "Twenty Ranks System," primarily to reward military achievements but also to encourage agricultural production through the sale of ranks. After Shang Yang's reforms, the "registered commoner" system reached another level.
With the unification of the six states by Qin Shi Huang, the system of registered commoners was implemented nationwide.
The system of registered commoners became standardized during the Han Dynasty. Emperor Wu of Han implemented an extremely strict household registration system to ensure the enforcement of taxation and labor services. Registered commoners had independent identities and bore the state's taxes and corvee duties according to their assets. The "Juyan Han Bamboo Slips" recorded details of registered commoner households, such as the household of Xu Zong: "Xu Zong resides in Xidao Village of Juyan, aged 50, with one wife, two male siblings, and two female siblings. One house valued at 3000 coins, 50 mu of farmland valued at 5000 coins, and two oxen used for plowing valued at 5000 coins."
From this point on, China's social structure officially transformed from the feudal city-states of classical ducal states into a political society based on commandery and county systems.
Historical significance:
"Great Unity" is an important characteristic of ancient Chinese politics. The formation of the "Great Unity" state was the result of multiple factors, among which the registered household system played a crucial role.
The distinction between the nobility and the commoners was abolished, and all people under Qin rule were incorporated into the "wu" system, which essentially elevated the status of slaves, granting them the treatment of citizens.
The state hoped to effectively control the population and related resources, thus requiring a thorough grasp of domestic household registration data in order to effectively implement tax collection or corvée labor mobilization.
The impact of registered households on China's business environment:
The main threats to the system of registered households were merchant forces and powerful landlord forces.
Shang Yang had a clear understanding of the power of merchants: "Those who pursue commercial profits and are lazy and poor should be confiscated as slaves." The commentary in Suo Yin states: "The end refers to commerce and industry. Agriculture and sericulture are the foundation, hence it is said above that 'the fundamental occupation is farming and weaving.'" One of the contents of Shang Yang's reforms was to suppress the power of merchants to avoid harming the interests of small farmers.
In the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, it was stipulated that merchants were not allowed to wear silk clothing, ride in carriages or on horses, carry weapons, and their taxes were doubled. These institutional regulations clearly reflected the characteristics of the Qin system and were consistent with the spirit of Shang Yang's reforms.
During the reigns of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing of the Western Han Dynasty, the power of large merchants became active again. Due to their hoarding and profiteering, which infringed upon the interests of farmers, the system of registered households began to suffer severe migration. Emperors Wen and Jing, on one hand, reaffirmed the ban on merchants becoming officials, restricting the social mobility of merchants; on the other hand, they accepted Chao Cuo's suggestion and implemented the "buying ranks with grain" system, encouraging rich people to purchase grain and transport it to border counties and inner counties, granting ranks according to the amount of grain transported. These policies aimed to transform private commercial capital into state use. When merchants live long-term in an environment where responsibilities and obligations are unequal, always worrying about being exploited, they cannot truly experience peace and prosperity.
During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, there was even greater emphasis on promoting agriculture while restraining commerce. Emperor Wu continued the policies towards merchants established by Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing of Han, attempting to incorporate the power of merchants into the national framework, avoiding the loss of registered commoners due to harm caused to farmers. The economic policies included legal tender currency policies, state monopolies on salt and iron, as well as the equal transport law and price stabilization law. In the economic sphere, the state essentially viewed itself as a commercial entity competing with merchants based on fiscal revenue; in the social sphere, it sought to diminish the social prestige of merchants and deprive them of their wealth through heavy taxation. These policies influenced China's way of thinking for over two thousand years, focusing on national interests and using state power to continuously intervene in economic development.
From this point onward, Chinese commerce and industry embarked on a path of either cooperating with the state or aligning with powerful elites who had usurped state authority. As a result, China's socio-economic development became intertwined with the evolution of its state form in a dualistic relationship.
References
Du Zhengsheng, *Registered Commoners: The Formation of Traditional Political and Social Structures* (Taipei: Lianjing Publishing Company, 1990).
Du Zhengsheng, *The City-States of Zhou (Second Edition)* (Taipei: Lianjing, 2018) ISBN 9789570851120
Du Zhengsheng, "Chinese Cultural History," Sanmin Book Company, ISBN 957142336X
Okada Eiichi, "The History of Chinese Civilization: The Construction of a Non-Han-Centric Perspective," (New Taipei: Eight Flags Culture, 2017) ISBN 9789869556149
Li Lei, "The Registered Peasant System and the State Capacity of Traditional China" (2019)
Liu Min, "On the Formation and Evolution of the Concept of 'Registered Peasants' - Also Discussing the Relationship between 'Registered Peasants' and 'Officials and People' in the Qin and Han Dynasties" (Tianjin Social Sciences, 2009)
Huang Zhenhua, "Registered Peasants and the Construction of China's 'Great Unity' State Form" (2021)